SAHABAT

Mempunyai satu sahabat sejati lebih berharga dari seribu teman yang mementingkan diri sendiri. Apa yang kita alami demi teman kadang-kadang melelahkan dan menjengkelkan, tetapi itulah yang membuat persahabatan mempunyai nilai yang indah. Persahabatan sering menyuguhkan beberapa cobaan, tetapi persahabatan sejati bisa mengatasi cobaan itu bahkan bertumbuh bersama karenanya… Persahabatan tidak terjalin secara otomatis tetapi membutuhkan proses yang panjang seperti besi menajamkan besi, demikianlah sahabat menajamkan sahabatnya. Persahabatan diwarnai dengan berbagai pengalaman suka dan duka, dihibur - disakiti, diperhatikan - dikecewakan, didengar - diabaikan, dibantu - ditolak, namun semua ini tidak pernah sengaja dilakukan dengan tujuan kebencian. Seorang sahabat tidak akan menyembunyikan kesalahan untuk menghindari perselisihan, justru karena kasihnya ia memberanikan diri menegur apa adanya. Sahabat tidak pernah membungkus pukulan dengan ciuman, tetapi menyatakan apa yang amat menyakitkan dengan tujuan sahabatnya mau berubah. Proses dari teman menjadi sahabat membutuhkan usaha pemeliharaan dari kesetiaan, tetapi bukan pada saat kita membutuhkan bantuan barulah kita memiliki motivasi mencari perhatian, pertolongan dan pernyataaan kasih dari orang lain, tetapi justru ia berinisiatif memberikan dan mewujudkan apa yang dibutuhkan oleh sahabatnya. Kerinduannya adalah menjadi bagian dari kehidupan sahabatnya, karena tidak ada persahabatan yang diawali dengan sikap egoistis. Semua orang pasti membutuhkan sahabat sejati, namun tidak semua orang berhasil mendapatkannya. Banyak pula orang yang telah menikmati indahnya persahabatan, namun ada juga yang begitu hancur karena dikhianati sahabatnya. Ingatlah kapan terakhir kali kamu berada dalam kesulitan. Siapa yang berada di samping kamu ?? Siapa yang mengasihi kamu saat kamu merasa tidak dicintai ?? Siapa yang ingin bersama kamu saat kamu tak bisa memberikan apa-apa ?? MEREKALAH SAHABATMU Hargai dan peliharalah selalu persahabatanmu

Pendidikan Agama Islam > Pengertian, Tujuan, Ruang Lingkup

Pendidikan Agama Islam 1.1 Pengertian dan Tujuan Pendidikan Agama Islam a) Pengertian Pendidikan Agama Islam Pengertian pendidikan itu bermacam-macam, hal ini disebabkan karena perbedaan falsafah hidup yang dianut dan sudut pandang yang memberikan rumusan tentang pendidikan itu. Menurut Sahertian (2000 : 1) mengatakan bahwa pendidikan adalah "usaha sadar yang dengan sengaja dirancangkan untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan." Sedangkan Ihsan mengatakan bahwa pendidikan merupakan usaha manusia untuk menumbuhkan dan mengembangkan potensi-potensi pembawaan baik jasmani maupun rohani sesuai dengan nilai-nilai yang ada di dalam masyarakat dan kebudayaan. Atau dengan kata lain bahwa pendidikan dapat diartikan sebagai suatu hasil peradaban bangsa yang dikembangkan atas dasar pandangan hidup bangsa itu sendiri (nilai dan norma masyarakat) yang berfungsi sebagai filsafat pendidikannya atau sebagai cita-cita dan pernyataan tujuan pendidikannya (Ihsan, 1996 : 1) Sedangkan Pendidikan Agama Islam berarti "usaha-usaha secara sistematis dan pragmatis dalam membantu anak didik agar mereka hidup sesuai dengan ajaran Islam". (Zuhairani, 1983 : 27) Syariat islam tidak akan dihayati dan diamalkan orang kalau hanya diajarkan saja, tetapi harus dididik melalui proses pendidikan nabi sesuai ajaran Islam dengan berbagai metode dan pendekatan dari satu segi kita lihat bahwa pendidikan islam itu lebih banyak ditujukan kepada perbaikan sikap mental yang akan terwujud dalam amal perbuatan baik bagi keperluan diri sendiri maupun orang lain. Dari segi lainnya, pendidikan islam tidak bersifat teoritis saja, tetapi juga praktis. Ajaran islam tidak memisahkan antara iman dan amal shaleh. Oleh karena itu, pendidikan islam adalah sekaligus pendidikan iman dan pendidikan amal dan juga karena ajaran islam berisi tentang ajaran sikap dan tingkah laku pribadi masyarakat menuju kesejahteraan hidup perorangan dan bersama, maka pendidikan islam adalah pendidikan individu dan pendidikan masyarakat. Semula yang bertugas mendidik adalah para Nabi dan Rasul selanjutnya para ulama, dan cerdik pandailah sebagai penerus tugas, dan kewajiban mereka (Drajat, 1992 : 25-28). Pendidikan agama dapat didefenisikan sebagai upaya untuk mengaktualkan sifat-sifat kesempurnaan yang telah dianugerahkan oleh Allah Swt kepada manusia, upaya tersebut dilaksanakan tanpa pamrih apapun kecuali untuk semata-mata beribadah kepada Allah (Bawani, 1993 : 65). Ahli lain juga menyebutkan bahwa pendidikan agama adalah sebagai proses penyampaian informasi dalam rangka pembentukan insan yang beriman dan bertakwa agar manusia menyadari kedudukannya, tugas dan fungsinya di dunia dengan selalu memelihara hubungannya dengan Allah, dirinya sendiri, masyarakat dan alam sekitarnya serta tanggung jawab kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa (termasuk dirinya sendiri dan lingkungan hidupnya) (Ali, 1995 : 139) Para ahli pendidikan islam telah mencoba memformutasi pengertian pendidikan Islam, di antara batasan yang sangat variatif tersebut adalah : Al-Syaibany mengemukakan bahwa pendidikan agama islam adalah proses mengubah tingkah laku individu peserta didik pada kehidupan pribadi, masyarakat dan alam sekitarnya. Proses tersebut dilakukan dengan cara pendidikan dan pengajaran sebagai sesuatu aktivitas asasi dan profesi di antara sekian banyak profesi asasi dalam masyarakat. Muhammad fadhil al-Jamaly mendefenisikan pendidikan Islam sebagai upaya pengembangan, mendorong serta mengajak peserta didik hidup lebih dinamis dengan berdasarkan nilai-nilai yang tinggi dan kehidupan yang mulia. Dengan proses tersebut, diharapkan akan terbentuk pribadi peserta didik yang lebih sempurnah, baik yang berkaitan dengan potensi akal, perasaan maupun perbuatanya. Ahmad D. Marimba mengemukakan bahwa pendidikan islam adalah bimbingan atau pimpinan secara sadar oleh pendidik terhadap perkembangan jasmani dan rohani peserta didik menuju terbentuknya kepribadian yang utama (insan kamil) Ahmad Tafsir mendefenisikan pendidikan islam sebagai bimbingan yang diberikan oleh seseorang agar ia berkembang secara maksimal sesuai dengan ajaran Islam (Tafsir, 2005 : 45) Dari batasan di atas, penulis dapat menyimpulkan bahwa pendidikan Islam adalah suatu sistem yang memungkinkan seseorang (peserta didik) agar dapat mengarahkan kehidupannya sesuai dengan ideologis atau gaya pandang umat islam selama hidup di dunia. Adapun pengertian lain pendidikan agama islam secara alamiah adalah manusia tumbuh dan berkembang sejak dalam kandungan sampai meninggal, mengalami proses tahap demi tahap. Demikian pula kejadian alam semesta ini diciptakan Tuhan melalui proses setingkat demi setingkat, pola perkembangan manusia dan kejadian alam semesta yang berproses demikian adalah berlangsung di atas hukum alam yang ditetapkan oleh Allah sebagai “sunnatullah” Pendidikan sebagai usaha membina dan mengembangkan pribadi manusia dari aspek-aspek rohaniah dan jasmani juga harus berlangsung secara bertahap oleh karena suatu kematangan yang bertitik akhir pada optimalisasi perkembangan dan pertumbuhan dapat tercapai bilamana berlangsung melalui proses demi proses ke arah tujuan akhir perkembangan atau pertumbuhannya. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, maka penulis dapat menyimpulkan bahwa pendidikan agama Islam adalah usaha sadar atau kegiatan yang disengaja dilakukan untuk membimbing sekaligus mengarahkan anak didik menuju terbentuknya pribadi yang utama (insan kamil) berdasarkan nilai-nilai etika islam dengan tetap memelihara hubungan baik terhadap Allah Swt (HablumminAllah) sesama manusia (hablumminannas), dirinya sendiri dan alam sekitarnya. b) Tujuan Pendidikan Agama Islam Sebelum peneliti mengemukakan tujuan Pendidikan Agama tersebut terlebih dahulu akan mengemukakan tujuan pendidikan secara umum. Tujuan pendidikan merupakan faktor yang sangat penting, karena merupakan arah yang hendak dituju oleh pendidikan itu. Demikian pula halnya dengan Pendidikan Agama Islam, yang tercakup mata pelajaran akhlak mulia dimaksudkan untuk membentuk peserta didik menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa serta berakhlak mulia. Akhlak mulia mencakup etika, budi pekerti, atau moral sebagai perwujudan dari pendidikan agama. Tujuan pendidikan secara formal diartikan sebagai rumusan kualifikasi, pengetahuan, kemampuan dan sikap yang harus dimiliki oleh anak didik setelah selesai suatu pelajaran di sekolah, karena tujuan berfungsi mengarahkan, mengontrol dan memudahkan evaluasi suatu aktivitas sebab tujuan pendidikan itu adalah identik dengan tujuan hidup manusia. Dari uraian di atas tujuan Pendidikan Agama peneliti sesuaikan dengan tujuan Pendidikan Agama di lembaga-lembaga pendidikan formal dan peneliti membagi tujuan Pendidikan Agama itu menjadi dua bagian dengan uraian sebagai berikut : 1) Tujuan Umum Tujuan umum Pendidikan Agama Islam adalah untuk mencapai kwalitas yang disebutkan oleh al-Qur'an dan hadits sedangkan fungsi pendidikan nasional adalah mengembangkan kemampuan dan membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, bertujuan untuk mengembangkan potensi peserta didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warga negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab. Untuk mengemban fungsi tersebut pemerintah menyelenggarakan suatu sistem pendidikan nasional yang tercantum dalam Undang-Undang dasar No. 20 Tahun 2003 Dari tujuan umum pendidikan di atas berarti Pendidikan Agama bertugas untuk membimbing dan mengarahkan anak didik supaya menjadi muslim yang beriman teguh sebagai refleksi dari keimanan yang telah dibina oleh penanaman pengetahuan agama yang harus dicerminkan dengan akhlak yang mulia sebagai sasaran akhir dari Pendidikan Agama itu. Menurut Abdul Fattah Jalal tujuan umum pendidikan Islam adalah terwujudnya manusia sebagai hambah Allah, ia mengatakan bahwa tujuan ini akan mewujudkan tujuan-tujuan khusus. Dengan mengutip surat at-Takwir ayat 27. Jalal menyatakan bahwa tujuan itu adalah untuk semua manusia. Jadi menurut Islam, pendidikan haruslah menjadikan seluruh manusia menjadi manusia yang menghambakan diri kepada Allah atau dengan kata lain beribadah kepada Allah. Islam menghendaki agar manusia dididik supaya ia mampu merealisasikan tujuan hidupnya sebagaimana yang telah digariskan oleh Allah. Tujuan hidup manusia itu menurut Allah adalah beribadah kepada Allah, ini diketahui dari surat al-Dzariyat ayat 56 yang berbunyi : Artinya : “Dan aku tidak menciptakan jin dan manusia kecuali supaya mereka beribadah kepada-Ku” (Q.S al-Dzariyat, 56) 2) Tujuan Khusus Tujuan khusus Pendidikan Agama adalah tujuan yang disesuaikan dengan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan anak sesuai dengan jenjang pendidikan yang dilaluinya, sehingga setiap tujuan Pendidikan Agama pada setiap jenjang sekolah mempunyai tujuan yang berbeda-beda, seperti tujuan Pendidikan Agama di sekolah dasar berbeda dengan tujuan Pendidikan Agama di SMP, SMA dan berbeda pula dengan tujuan Pendidikan Agama di perguruan tinggi. Tujuan khusus pendidikan seperti di SLTP adalah untuk meningkatkan kecerdasan, pengetahuan, kepribadian, akhlak mulia, keterampilan untuk hidup mandiri dan mengikuti pendidikan lebih lanjut serta meningkatkan tata cara membaca al-Qur’an dan tajwid sampai kepada tata cara menerapkan hukum bacaan mad dan wakaf. Membiasakan perilaku terpuji seperti qanaah dan tasawuh dan menjawukan diri dari perilaku tercela seperti ananiah, hasad, ghadab dan namimah serta memahami dan meneladani tata cara mandi wajib dan shalat-shalat wajib maupun shalat sunat (Riyanto, 2006 : 160). Sedangkan tujuan lain untuk menjadikan anak didik agar menjadi pemeluk agama yang aktif dan menjadi masyarakat atau warga negara yang baik dimana keduanya itu terpadu untuk mewujudkan apa yang dicita-citakan merupakan suatu hakekat, sehingga setiap pemeluk agama yang aktif secara otomatis akan menjadi warga negara yang baik, terciptalah warga negara yang pancasilis dengan sila Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa 1.2 Ruang Lingkup Ajaran Islam Ruang lingkup ajaran islam meliputi tiga bidang yaitu aqidah, syari’ah dan akhlak a. Aqidah Aqidah arti bahasanya ikatan atau sangkutan. Bentuk jamaknya ialah aqa’id. Arti aqidah menurut istilah ialah keyakinan hidup atau lebih khas lagi iman. Sesuai dengan maknanya ini yang disebut aqidah ialah bidang keimanan dalam islam dengan meliputi semua hal yang harus diyakini oleh seorang muslim/mukmin. Terutama sekali yang termasuk bidang aqidah ialah rukun iman yang enam, yaitu iman kepada Allah, kepada malaikat-malaikat-Nya, kepada kitab-kitab-Nya, kepada Rasul-rasul-Nya, kepada hari Akhir dan kepada qada’dan qadar. b. Syari’ah Syari’ah arti bahasanya jalan, sedang arti istilahnya ialah peraturan Allah yang mengatur hubungan manusia dengan tiga pihak Tuhan, sesama manusia dan alam seluruhnya, peraturan Allah yang mengatur hubungan manusia dengan tuhan disebut ibadah, dan yang mengatur hubungan manusia dengan sesama manusia dan alam seluruhnya disebut Muamalah. Rukun Islam yang lima yaitu syahadat, shalat, zakat, puasa dan haji termasuk ibadah, yaitu ibadah dalam artinya yang khusus yang materi dan tata caranya telah ditentukan secara parmanen dan rinci dalam al-Qur’an dan sunnah Rasululah Saw. Selanjutnya muamalah dapat dirinci lagi, sehingga terdiri dari Munakahat (perkawinan), termasuk di dalamnya soal harta waris (faraidh) dan wasiat Tijarah (hukum niaga) termasuk di dalamnya soal sewa-menyewa, utang-piutang, wakaf. Hudud dan jinayat keduanya merupakan hukum pidana islam Hudud ialah hukum bagi tindak kejahatan zina, tuduhan zina, merampok, mencuri dan minum-minuman keras. Sedangkan jinayat adalah hukum bagi tindakan kejahatan pembunuhan, melukai orang, memotong anggota, dan menghilangkan manfaat badan, dalam tinayat berlaku qishas yaitu “hukum balas” Khilafat (pemerintahan/politik islam) Jihad (perang), termasuk juga soal ghanimah (harta rampasan perang) dan tawanan). Akhlak/etika Akhlak adalah berasal dari bahasa Arab jamat dari “khuluq” yang artinya perangai atau tabiat. Sesuai dengan arti bahasa ini, maka akhlak adalah bagian ajaran islam yang mengatur tingkahlaku perangai manusia. Ibnu Maskawaih mendefenisikan akhlak dengan “keadaan jiwa seseorang yang mendorongnya melakukan perbuatan-perbuatan tanpa melalui pertimbangan fikiran”. Akhlak ini meliputi akhlak manusia kepada tuhan, kepada nabi/rasul, kepada diri sendiri, kepada keluarga, kepada tetangga, kepada sesama muslim, kepada non muslim. Dalam Islam selain akhlak dikenal juga istilah etika. Etika adalah suatu ilmu yang menjelaskan arti baik dan buruk, menerangkan apa yang seharusnya dilakukan oleh manusia kepada lainnya, menyatakan tujuan yang harus dituju oleh manusia di dalam perbuatan mereka dan menunjukkan jalan untuk melakukan apa yang harus diperbuat (Amin, 1975 : 3) Jadi, etika adalah perbuatan baik yang timbul dari orang yang melakukannya dengan sengaja dan berdasarkan kesadarannya sendiri serta dalam melakukan perbuatan itu dia tau bahwa itu termasuk perbuatan baik atau buruk. Etika harus dibiasakan sejak dini, seperti anak kecil ketika makan dan minum dibiasakan bagaimana etika makan atau etika minum, pembiasaan etika makan dan minum sejak kecil akan berdampak setelah dewasa. Sama halnya dengan etika berpakaian, anak perempuan dibiasakan menggunakan berpakaian berciri khas perempuan seperti jilbab sedangkan laki-laki memakai kopya dan sebagainya. Islam sangat memperhatikan etika berpakai sebagaimana yang tercantum dalam surat al-Ahsab di atas. 1.3 Pentingnya Pendidikan Agama Bagi Kehidupan Agama sangatlah penting dalam kehidupan manusia. Demikian pentingnya agama dalam kehidupan manusia, sehingga diakui atau tidak sesungguhnya manusia sangatlah membutuhkan agama dan sangat dibutuhkanya agama oleh manusia. Tidak saja di massa premitif dulu sewaktu ilmu pengetahuan belum berkembang tetapi juga di zaman modern sekarang sewaktu ilmu dan teknologi telah demikian maju. Berikut ini sebagian dari bukti-bukti mengapa agama itu sangat penting dalam kehidupan manusia. a. Agama merupakan sumber moral Manusia sangatlah memerlukan akhlaq atau moral, karena moral sangatlah penting dalam kehidupan. Moral adalah mustika hidup yang membedakan manusia dari hewan. Manusia tanpa moral pada hakekatnya adalah binatang dan manusia yang membinatang ini sangatlah berbahaya, ia akan lebih jahat dan lebih buas dari pada binatang buas sendiri. Tanpa moral kehidupan akan kacau balau, tidak saja kehidupan perseorangan tetapi juga kehidupan masyarakat dan negara, sebab soal baik buruk atau halal haram tidak lagi dipedulikan orang. Dan kalau halal haram tidak lagi dihiraukan. Ini namanya sudah maehiavellisme. Machiavellisme adalah doktrin machiavelli “tujuan menghalalkan cara kalau betul ini yang terjadi, biasa saja kemudian bangsa dan negara hancur binasa. Ahmad Syauqi, 1868 – 1932 seorang penyair Arab mengatakan “bahwa keberadaan suatu bangsa ditentukan oleh akhlak, jika akhlak telah lenyap, akan lenyap pulalah bangsa itu”. Dalam kehidupan seringkali moral melebihi peranan ilmu, sebab ilmu adakalanya merugikan. “kemajuan ilmu dan teknologi mendorong manusia kepada kebiadapan” Demikian dikatakan oleh Prof. Dr. Alexis Carrel seorang sarjana Amerika penerima hadiah nobel 1948 “moral dapat digali dan diperoleh dalam agama, karena agama adalah sumber moral paling teguh. Nabi Muhammad Saw di utus tidak lain juga untuk membawa misi moral, yaitu untuk menyempurnakan akhlak yang mulia” W.M. Dixo dalam “The Human Situation” menulis “ Agama betul atau salah dengan ajarannya percaya kepada Tuhan dan kehidupan akherat yang akan datang, adalah dalam keseluruhannya kalau tidak satu-satunya peling sedikit kita boleh percaya, merupakan dasar yang paling kecil bagi moral”. Dari tulisan W.M. Dixon di atas ini dapat diketahui bahwa agama merupakan sumber dan dasar (paling kuat) bagi moral, karena agama menganjurkan kepercayaan kepada Tuhan dan kehidupan akherat. Pendapat Dixon ini memang betul. Kalau orang betul beriman bahwa Tuhan itu ada dan Tuhan yang ada itu maha mengetahui kepada tiap orang sesuai dengan amal yang dikerjakannya, maka keimanan seperti ini merupakan sumber yang tidak kering-keringnya bagi moral. Itulah sebabnya ditegaskan oleh Rasulullah Saw. Yang artinya : ”Orang mukmin yang paling sempurna imanya ialah orang mukmin yang paling baik akhlaqnya” (Riwayat Tirmizi) Dari uraian di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa pentingnya agama dalam kehidupan disebabkan oleh sangat diperlukannya moral oleh manusia, karena agama bersumber dari agama. Dan agama menjadi sumber moral, karena agama menganjurkan iman kepada Tuhan dan kehidupan akherat, dan selain itu karena adanya perintah dan larangan dalam agama. b. Agama merupakan petunjuk kebenaran Salah satu hal yang ingin diketahui oleh manusia ialah apa yang bernama kebenaran. Masalah ini masalah besar, dan menjadi tanda tanya besar bagi manusia sejak zaman dahulu kala. Apa kebenaran itu, dan dimana dapat diperoleh manusia dengan akal, dengan ilmu dan dengan filsafatnya ingin mengetahui dan mencapainya dan yang menjadi tujuan ilmu dan filsafat tidak lain juga untuk mencari jawaban atas tanda tanya besar itu, yaitu masalah kebenaran. Tetapi dapat disayangkan, sebagaimana telah disebutkan dalam uraian terdahulu, sebegitu jauh usaha ilmu dan filsafat untuk mencapai kemampuan ilmu dan filsafat hanyalah sampai kepada kebenaran relatif atau nisbi, padahal kebenaran relatif atau nisbi bukanlah kebenaran yang sesungguhnya. Kebenaran yang sesungguhnya ialah kebenaran mutlak dan universal, yaitu kebenaran yang sungguh-sungguh benar, absolut dan berlaku untuk semua orang. Tampakya sampai kapanpun masalah kebenaran akan tetap merupakan misteri bagi manusia, kalau saja manusia hanya mengandalkan alat yang bernama akal, atau ilmu atau juga filsafat (Demoikritas, 2004 : 360-460) Kebenaran itu dalam sekali letaknya tidak terjangkau semuanya oleh manusia. Penganut-penganut sufisme, yaitu aliran baru dalam filsafat Yunani yang timbul pada pertengahan abad ke-5 menegaskan pula”. Kebenaran yang sebenar-benarnya tidak tercapai oleh manusia. Kemudian Bertrand Rossel seorang Failosuf Inggris termasyur juga berkata “apa yang tidak sanggup dikerjakan oleh ahli ilmu pengetahuan, ialah menentukan kebajikan (haq dan bathil). Segala sesuatu yang berkenaan dengan nilai-nilai adalah di luar bidang ilmu pengetahuan. Hal ini sesuai dengan firman Allah yang artinya “Sesungguhnya telah kami turunkan al-Kitab kepadamu dengan membawa kebenaran agar kamu memberi kepastian hukum di antara manusia dengan apa yang telah ditunjukkan oleh Allah kepadamu” (an-Nisa’, 105) c. Agama merupakan sumber informasi tentang masalah metafisika Prof Arnoid Toynbee memperkuat pernyataan yang demikian ini. Menurut ahli sejarah Inggris kenamaan ini tabir rahasia alam semesta juga ingin di singkap oleh manusia. Dalam bukunya “An Historian’s Aproach to religion” dia menulis, “ Tidak ada satu jiwapun akan melalui hidup ini tanpa mendapat tantantangan-rangsangan untuk memikirkan rahasia alam semesta”. Ibnu Kholdum dalam kitab Muqaddimah-nya menulis “akal ada sebuah timbangan yang tepat, yang catatannya pasti dan bisa dipercaya. Tetapi mempergunakan akal untuk menimbang hakekat dari soal-soal yang berkaitan dengan keesaan Tuhan, atau hidup sesudah mati, atau sifat-sifat Tuhan atau soal-soal lain yang luar lingkungan akal, adalah sebagai mencoba mempergunakan timbangan tukang emas untuk menimbang gunung, ini tidak berarti bahwa timbangannya itu sendiri yang kurang tepat. Soalnya ialah karena akal mempunyai batas-batas yang membatasinya. Berhubungan dengan itu persoalan yang menyangkut metafisika masih gelap bagi manusia dan belum mendapat penyelesaian semua tanda tanya tentang itu tidak terjawab oleh akal. d. Agama memberikan bimbingan rohani bagi manusia, baik dikala suka maupun di kala duka Hidup manusia di dunia yang pana ini kadang-kadang suka tapi kadang-kadang juga duka. Maklumlah dunia bukanlah surga, tetapi juga bukan neraka. Jika dunia itu surga, tentulah hanya kegembiraan yang ada, dan jika dunia itu neraka tentulah hanya penderitaan yang terjadi. Kenyataan yang menunjukan bahwa kehidupan dunia adalah rangkaian dari suka dan duka yang silih berganti. Firman Allah Swt yang artinya : “Setiap jiwa pasti akan merasakan kematian, dan engkau kami coba dengan yang buruk dan dengan yang baik sebagai ujian” (al-Ambiya, 35). Dalam masyarakat dapat dilihat seringkali orang salah mengambil sikap menghadapi cobaan suka dan duka ini. Misalnya dikala suka, orang mabuk kepayang da lupa daratan. Bermacam karunia Tuhan yang ada padanya tidak mengantarkan dia kepada kebaikan tetapi malah membuat manusia jahat. (Shaleh, 2005: 45) Berdasarkan uraian di atas penulis dapat menyimpulkan bahwa sikap yang salah juga sering dilakukan orang sewaktu di rundung duka. Misalnya orang hanyut dalam himpitan kesedihan yang berkepanjangan. Dari sikap yang keliru seperti itu dapat timbul gangguan kejiwaan seperti lesu, murung, malas, kurang gairah hidup, putus asa dan merasa tidak berguna bagi orang lain. Pendidikan Agama Islam Daftar Pustaka Zuhaerini, 1983. Metodik Khusus Pendidikan Agama. Surabaya : Usaha Nasional. Drajat, Zakiah, 1992. Ilmu Pendidikan Islam, Jakarta : Bumi Aksara Tafsir, Ahmad, 2005. Ilmu Pendidikan Dalam Persfektif Islam, Bandung : PT. Remaja Rosdakarya Riyanto, Yatim. 2006. Pengembangan Kurikulum dan Seputar Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP), IKAPI : Universiti Press. Shaleh, Abdul, Rahman, 2005. Pendidikan Agama dan Pembangunan Untuk Bangsa.Jakarta : PT. Raja Grafindo Persada.

http://www.sarjanaku.com/2011/09/pendidikan-agama-islam-pengertian.html

ILMU ALAMIAH DASAR

ILMU ALAMIAH DASAR Ilmu alamiah atau sering disebut ilmu pengetahuan alam (natural science) merupakan pengetahuan yang mengkaji tentang gejala-gejala dalam alam semesta, termasuk di muka bumi ini, sehingga terbentuk konsep dan prinsip. IAD hanya mengkaji konsep-konsep dan prinsip-prinsip dasar yang esensial saja. A. MANUSIA YANG BERSIFAT UNIK Ciri-ciri manusia a. Organ tubuhnya kompleks dan sangat khusus, terutama otaknya b. Mengadakan metabolisme atau pertukaran zat, (ada yang masuk dan keluar) c. Memberikan tanggapan terhadap rangsangan dari dalam dan luar d. Memiliki potensi untuk berkembang biak e. Tumbuh dan bergerak f. Berinteraksi dengan lingkungannnya g. Sampai pada saatnya mengalami kematiian Manusia adalah makhluk yang lemah dibanding makhluk lain namun dengan akal budinya dan kemauannya yang sangat kuat maka manusia dapat mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi dengan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi manusia dapat hidup dengan lebih baik lagi. Akal budinya dan kemauannya yang sangat kuat itulah sifat unik dari manusia. B. KURIOSITAS ATAU RASA INGIN TAHU DAN AKAL BUDI Rasa ingin tahu makhluk lain lebih didasarkan oleh naluri (instinct) /idle curiosity naluri ini didasarkan pada upaya mempertahankan kelestaraian hidup dan sifatnya tetap sepanjang zaman. Manusia juga mempunyai naluri seperti tumbuhan dan hewan tetapi ia mempunyai akal budi yang terus berkembang serta rasa ingin tahu yang tidak terpuaskan. Sesuatu masalah yang telah dapat dipecahkan maka akan timbul masalah lain yang menunggu pemecahannya, manusia setelah tahu apanya maka ingin tahu bagimana dan mengapa. Contoh : tempat tinggal manusia purba sampai manusia modern, contoh lain seperti penyakit setelah ditemukan obat suatu penyakit ada penyakit lain lagi yang dicoba untuk dicari obatnya (HIV AIDS) C. PERKEMBANGAN ALAM PIKIRAN MANUSIA Manusia yang mempunyai rasa ingin tahu terhadap rahasia alam mencoba menjawab dengan menggunakan pengamatan dan penggunaan pengalaman, tetapi sering upaya itu tidak terjawab secara memuaskan. Pada manusia kuno untuk memuaskan mereka menjawab sendiri. Misalnya kenapa ada pelangi mereka membuat jawaban, pelangi adalah selendang bidadari atau kenapa gunung meletus jawabannya karena yang berkuasa marah. Dari hal ini timbulnya pengetahuan tentang bidadari dan sesuatu yang berkuasa. Pengetahuan baru itu muncul dari kombinasi antara pengalaman dan kepercayaan yang disebut mitos. Cerita-cerita mitos disebut legenda. Mitos dapat diterima karena keterbatasan penginderaan, penalaran, dan hasrat ingin tahu yang harus dipenuhi. Sehubungan dengan dengan kemajuan zaman, maka lahirlah ilmu pengetahuan dan metode ilmiah. Puncak pemikiran mitos adalah pada zaman Babilonia yati kira-kira 700-600 SM. Orang Babilonia berpendapat bahwa alam semesta itu sebagai ruangan setengah bola dengan bumi yang datar sebagai lantainya dan langit dan bintang-bintang sebagai atapnya. Namun yang menakjubkan mereka telah mengenal bidang ekleptika sebagai bidang edar matahari dan menetapkan perhitungan satu tahun yaitu satu kali matahari beredar ketempat semula, yaitu 365,25 hari. Pengetahuan dan ajaran tentang orang Babilonia setengahnya merupakan dugaan, imajinasi, kepercayaan atau mitos pengetahuan semacam ini disebut Pseudo science (sains palsu) Tokoh-tokoh Yunani dan lainnya yang memberikan sumbangan perubahan pemikiran pada waktu itu adalah : a. Anaximander, langit yang kita lihat adalah setengah saja, langit dan isinya beredar mengelilingi bumi ia juga mengajarkan membuat jam dengan tongkat. b. Anaximenes, (560-520) mengatakan unsur-unsur pembentukan semua benda adalah air, seperti pendapat Thales. Air merupakan salah satu bentuk benda bila merenggang menjadi api dan bila memadat menjadi tanah. c. Herakleitos, (560-470) pengkoreksi pendapat Anaximenes, justru apilah yang menyebabkan transmutasi, tanpa ada api benda-benda akan seperti apa adanya. d. Pythagoras (500 SM) mengatakan unsur semua benda adalah empat : yaitu tanah, api, udara dan air. Ia juga mengungkapkan dalil Pythagoras C2 = A2 + B2, sehubungan dengan alam semesta ia mengatakan bahwa bumi adalah bulat dan seolah-olah benda lain mengitari bumi termasuk matahari. e. Demokritos (460-370) bila benda dibagi terus, maka pada suatu saat akan sampai pada bagian terkecil yang disebut Atomos atau atom, istilah atom tetap dipakai sampai saat ini namun ada perubahan konsep. f. Empedokles (480-430 SM) menyempurnakan pendapat Pythagoras, ia memperkenalkan tentang tenaga penyekat atau daya tarik-menarik dan data tolak-menolak. Kedua tenaga ini dapat mempersatukan atau memisahkan unsur-unsur. g. Plato (427-345) yang mempunyai pemikiran yang berbeda dengan orang sebelumnya, ia mengatakan bahwa keanekaragaman yang tampak ini sebenarnya hanya suatu duplikat saja dari semua yang kekal dan immatrial. Seperti serangga yang beranekaragam itu merupakan duplikat yang tidak sempurna, yang benar adalah idea serangga. h. Aristoteles merupakan ahli pikir, ia membuat intisari dari ajaran orang sebelumnya ia membuang ajaran yang tidak masuk akal dan memasukkan pendapatnya sendiri. Ia mengajarkan unsur dasar alam yang disebut Hule. Zat ini tergantung kondisi sehingga dapat berwujud tanah, air, udara atau api. Terjadi transmutasi disebabkan oleh kondisi, dingin, lembah, panas dan kering. Dalam kondisi lembab hule akan berwujud sebagai api, sedang dalam kondisi kering ia berwujud tanah. Ia juga mengajarkan bahwa tidak ada ruang yang hampa, jika ruang itu tidak terisi suatu benda maka ruang itu diisi oleh ether. Aristoteles juga mengajarkan tentang klasifikasi hewan yang ada dimuka bumi ini. i. Ptolomeus (127-151) SM, mengatakan bahwa bumi adalah pusat tata surya (geosentris), berbentuk bulat diam seimbang tanpa tiang penyangga. j. Avicenna (ibn-Shina abad 11), merupakan ahli dibidang kedokteran, selain itu ahli lain dari dunia Islam yaitu Al-Biruni seorang ahli ilmu pengetahuan asli dan komtemporer. Pada abab 9-11 ilmu pengetahuan dan filasafat Yunani banyak yang diterjemahkan dan dikembangkan dalam bahasa Arab. Kebudayaan Arab berkembang menjadi kebudayaan Internasional. D. LAHIRNYA ILMU ALAMIAH Panca indera akan memberikan tanggapan terhadap semua rangsangan dimana tanggapan itu menjadi suatu pengalaman. Pengalaman yang diperoleh terakumulasi oleh karena adanya kuriositas manusia. Pengalaman merupakan salah satu terbentuknya pengetahuan, yakni kumpulan fakta-fakta. Pengalaman akan bertambah terus seiring berkembangnya manusia dan mewariskan kepada generasi-generasi berikutnya. Pertambahan pengetahuan didorong oleh pertama untuk memuaskan diri, yang bersifat non praktis atau teoritis guna memenuhi kuriositas dan memahami hakekat alam dan isinya kedua, dorongan praktis yang memanfaatkan pengetahuan itu untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup yang lebih tinggi. Dorongan pertama melahirkan Ilmu Pengetahuan Murni (Pure Science) sedang dorongan kedua menuju Ilmu Pengetahuan Terapan (Aplied Science) E. KRETERIA ILMIAH Pengetahuan masuk kategori Ilmu Pengetahuan, bila kriteria berikut dipenuhi yakni : teratur, sistemastis, berobyek, bermetoda dan berlaku secara universal. Contoh: 1. logam yang dipanasi memuai, dimana saja tempatnya sama 2. Grafitasi Bumi. F. METODE ILMIAH DAN IMPLEMENTASINYA Segala kebenaran dalam ilmu Alamiah terletak pada metode ilmiah. Sebagai langkah pemecahan atau prosedur ilmiah dapat sebagai berikut : 1. Penginderaan, merupakan suatu aktivitas melihat, mendengar, merasakan, mengecap terhadap suatu objek tertentu. 2. Masalah dan problema, menemukan masalah dengan kata lain adalah dengan mengemukakan pertanyaan apa dan bagaimana. 3. Hipotesis, jawaban sementara terhadap pertanyaan yang kita ajukan. 4. Eksperimen, dari sini ilmu alamiah dan non ilmu alamiah dapat dipisahkan. Contoh dalam gejala alam tentang serangga dengan lampu (sinar biru) 5. Teori, bukti eksperimen merupakan langkah ilmiah berikutnya yaitu teori. Dengan hasil eksperimen dari beberapa peneliti dan bukti-bukti yang menunjukkan hasil yang dapat dipercaya dan valid walaupun dengan keterbatasan tertentu. Maka disusun teori. Dengan teori-teori yang dikemukakan maka dapat diaplikasikan terhadap kebutuhan manusia seperti pengusiran serangga atau perangkap nyamuk (terkait dengan teori pencahayaan..\..\..\..\My ebook\harun yahya\Presentasi\Presentasi_harunyahya_eng\gecko_eng G. KETERBATASAN ILMU ALAMIAH Untuk itu perlu dilakukan pengujian sampai dimana berlakunya metode ilmiah dan dimana metode ilmiah tidak berlaku. Untuk itu kita perlu memperhatikan : Pertama, Bidang ilmu Alamiah, yang menentukan bidang ilmu alamiah adalah metode ilmiah, karena bidang ilmu alamiah adalah wahana di mana metode ilmiah dapat diterapkan, sebaliknya bidang non ilmiah adalah wahana dimana metode ilmiah tidak dapat terapkan. Contoh hipotesa tentang keberadaan tuhan merupakan konsep yang tidak bisa menggunakan metode ilmiah dan apabila menggunakan konsep ini bisa menyebabkan orang Atheis. Kedua, tujuan ilmu Alamiah, membentuk dan menggunakan teori. Ilmu alamiah hanya dapat mengemukakan bukti kebenaran sementara dengan kata lain untuk kebenaran sementara adalah "Teori". Karena tidak ada sesuatu yang mutlak tetapi terus mengalami perubahan (contoh teori tentang bumi ini bulat) Ketiga. Ilmu alamiah dan nilai, ilmu alamiah tidak menentukan moral atau nilai suatu keputusan . Manusia pemakain ilmu alamiahlah yang menilai apakah hasil Ilmu Alamiah baik atau sebaliknya. Contoh penemuan mesiu atau bom atom. H. FILSAFAT ILMU ALAMIAH Yang menjadi objek I. A adalah semua materi dalam alam semesta ini. I.A. meneliti sumber alam yang mengaturnya. Pertanyaan tentang siapa yang mengatur alam ini merupakan pertanyaan filsafat. Untuk itu ada 3 pandangan tentang filsafat ilmu alamiah. Vitalisme, merupakan suatu doktrin yang menyatakan adanya kekuatan diluar alam. Kekuatan itu melikiki peranan yang esensial mengatur segala sesuatu yang terjadi di Alam semesta ini. (misalnya Tuhan). pendapat ini ditantang oleh beberapa orang lain karena dalam ilmu alamiah dikatakan bahwa segala sesuatunya harus dapat dianalisis secaras eksperimen. Atau harus cocok dengan metode ilmiah. Mekanisme, penyebab segala gerakan di alam semesta ini dikarenakan hukum alam (misalnya fisika atau kimia). Faham ini menganggap bahwa gejala pada mahluk hidup secara otomatis terjadi hanya berdasar peristiwa fisika –kimia belaka. Pandangan ini menyamakan gejala pada mahluk hidup dengan gejala benda tidak hidup sehingga perbedaan hikiki tidak ada. Dengan begitu dapat menghayutkan manusia ke pandangan materialisme yang selanjutnya kepada Atheisme. Agnotisme, untuk menghindari pertentangan vitalisme dan mekanisme maka aliran ini timbul, dimana aliran ini melepaskan atau tidak memperhatikan sisi dari sang pencipta. Mereka yang mengkuti aliran ini, hanya mempelajari gejala-gejala alam saja, aliran ini banyak dianut oleh ilmuwan Barat. Filsafat Pancasila, paham yang menjembatani dari 2 aliran yang menyatakan bahwa alam dan hukumnya terjadi karena ciptaan tuhan dan proses selanjutnya menurut filsafat mekanisme (hukum alam). Hukum alam adalah itu adalah sama dengan hukum Tuhan.Dapat dilihat dari kehidupan makhluk hidup dari awal sampai akhir. I. BAHASA ILMU ALAMIAH Adalah bahasa kesatuan yang utuh sebagai bentuk bahasa ilmu alamiah merupakan bahasa universal. Contoh : Air (Indonesia), Water(Inggris) bahasa ilmiahnya H2O J. KETERBATASAN INDERA MANUSIA Berdasarkan penelitian terhadap indera, manusia mempunyai kisaran (range) batas yang sangat terbatas Penglihatan, terutama terhadap cepat atau lambatnya benda bergerak (riak air atau kecepatan cahaya, atau penglihatan kita sewaktu naik kereta api yang disampingnya terdapat pohon. Pendengaran, manusia mempunyai kemampuan pendengaran dengan kisaran frekuensinya range 30 - 30.000 Hertz Pengecapan dan pembauan, manusia selain mempunyai kemampuan tersebut juga mempunyai keterbatasan pembauan dan pengecapan terhadap benda yang ada dialam. Indra kulit, manusia mampu membedakan antara panas dan dingin secara kasar, namun manusia mempunyai keterbatasan sehingga penginderaan sering menimbulkan salah kesan dan informasi, seperti perpindahan seseorang dari ruang panas ke dingin dibanding dengan orang yang berada diruangan yang tidak begitu panas. ..\..\..\..\My ebook\harun yahya\Presentasi\Presentasi_harunyahya_eng\the_truth K. PENINGKATAN DAYA PENGINDERAAN Peningkatan daya indra dapat dilakukan sehingga diperoleh hasil yang tepat dapat dilakukan dengan : 1. Latihan, contoh pengindraan tentang bau dan bunyi (kualitas minuman anggur, teh, alat musik) 2. Peningkatan Kewaspadaan, tingkat kewaspadaan sangat dipengaruhi oleh minat yang menyebabkan kesimpulan berbeda, dapat dilihat pendapat beberapa orang tentang satu etalase atau laporan dari kecelakaan dari beberapa orang. 3. Kalibrasi Instrumen (peneraan adalah membandingkan instrumen dengan standar yang ada. 4. Pengecekan, merupakan hal yang baik untuk menghindari kekeliruan. 5. Eksperimen, penginderaan dalam kondisi yang dikontrol dengan eksperimen kita mengetahui faktor-faktor apa saja yang sangat mempengaruhi terhadap suatu perubahan. 6. Penginderaan yang meliputi analisis dan sentesis, pengamatan terhadap bagian-bagian atau pengamatan secara keseluruhan. 7. Instrumen baru, bisa melakukan pengindraan baru. Seperti lie detector, Teleskop, satelit dll. 8. Pengukuran, merupakan ketrampilan tersendiri contoh dalam pembuatan mesin atau arsitektur. L. PEMBAGIAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN Berdasarkan beberapa argumentasi ilmu pengetahuan dibedakan atas : a. Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial, yakni membahas hubungan antar manusia sebagai makhluk sosial, yang selanjutnya dibagi atas : 1. Psikologi, yang mepelajari proses mental dan tingkah laku 2. Pendidikan, proses latihan yang terarah dan sistematis menuju ke suatu tujuan 3. Antropologi, mempelajari asal usul dan perkembangan jasmani, sosial, kebudayaan dan tingkah laku sosial 4. Etnologi, cabang dari studi antropologi yang dilihat dari aspek sistem sosio-ekonomi dan pewarisan kebudayaan terutama keaslian budaya 5. Sejarah, pencatatan peristiwa-persitiwa yang telah terjadi pada suatu bangsa. Negara atau individu 6. Ekonomi, yang berhubungan dengan produksi, tukar menukar barang produksi, pengolahan dalam lingkup rumah tangga, negara atau perusahaan. 7. Sosiologi, studi tentang tingkah laku sosial, terutama tentang asal usul organisasi, institusi, perkembangan masyarakat. b. Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam , yang membahas tentang alam semesta dengan semua isinya dan selanjutnya terbagi atas: 1. Fisika, mempelajari benda tak hidup dari aspek wujud dengan perubahan yang bersifat sementara. Seperti : bunyi cahaya, gelombang magnet, teknik kelistrikan, teknik nuklir 2. Kimia, mempelajari benda hidup dan tak hidup dari aspek sususan materi dan perubahan yang bersifat tetap. Kimia secara garis besar dibagi kimia organik (protein, lemak) dan kimia anorganik (NaCl), hasil dari ilmu ini dapat diciptakan seperti plastik, bahan peledak..\..\..\..\..\tv\film-film\Unsur Kimia.mpg 3. Biologi, yang mempelajari makhluk hidup dan gejala-gejalanya.  Botani, ilmu yang mempelajari tentang tumbuh-tumbuhan  Zoologi ilmu yang mempelajrai tentang hewan  Morfologi ilmu yang mempelajari tentang struktur luar makhluk hidup  Anatomi suatu studi tentang struktur dalam atau bentuk dalam mahkhluk hidup  Fisiologi studi tentang fungsi atau faal/organ bagian tubuh makhluk hidup  Sitologi ilmu yang mempelajari tentang sel secara mendalam  Histologi studi tentang jaringan tubuh atau organ makhluk hidup yang merupakan serentetan sel sejenis  Palaentologi studi tentang makhluk hidup masa lalu..\..\..\..\My ebook\harun yahya\Presentasi\Presentasi_harunyahya_eng\The Collapse of Darwinism c. Ilmu Pengetahuan Bumi dan Antariksa Studi tentang bumi sebagai salah satu anggota tatasurya, dan ruang angkasa dengan benda angkasa lainnya. 1. Geologi, yang membahas tentang struktur bumi. (yang bahasannya meliputi dari ilmu kimia dan fisika) contoh dari ilmu ini petrologi (batu-batuan), vukanologi (gempa bumi), mineralogi (bahan-bahan mineral) 2. Astronomi, membahas benda-benda ruang angkasa dalam alam semesta yang meliputi bintang, planet, satelit da lain-lainnya. Manfaatnya dapat digunakan dalam navigasi, kalendar dan waktu..\..\..\..\My ebook\harun yahya\Presentasi\Presentasi_harunyahya_eng\EARTH www.stiabinabanua.ac.id/dwn/iad%20klh%201-iv%202008.doc

Ilmu Sosial Dasar; Defenisi (Kuliah I)

Pengertian ISD adalah pengetahuan yg menelaah masalah2 sosial, khususnya masalah2 yg diwujudkan oleh masyarakat Indonesia, dengan menggunakan Teori2 (fakta, konsep, teori) yg berasal dari berbagai bidang pengetahuan keahlian dalam lapangan ilmu2 sosial (seperti Geografi Sosial, Sosiologi, Antropologi Sosial, Ilmu Politik, Ekonomi, Psikologi Sosial dan Sejarah) MK. ISD merupakan suatu usaha yang dapat diharapkan memberikan pengetahuan umum dan pengetahuan dasar tentang konsep2 yg dikembangkan untuk melengkapi gejala2 sosial agar daya tanggap (tanggap nilai), persepsi dan penalaran mahasiswa dalam menghadapi lingkungan sosial dapat ditingkatkan , sehingga kepekaan mahasiswa pada lingkungan sosialnya menjadi lebih besar. Ruang Lingkup Studi ISD ISD meliputi dua kelompok utama; studi manusia dan masyarakat dan studi lembaga2 sosial. Yg terutama terdiri atas psikologi, sosiologi, dan antropologi, sedang yg kemudian terdiri atas ekonomi dan politik. Sasaran STUDI ISD adalah aspek2 yg paling dasar yg ada dalam kehidupan manusia sebagai makhluk sosial dan masalah2 yg terwujud dari padanya. Tujuan ISD ISD membantu perkembangan wawasan penalaran dan kepribadian mahasiswa agar memperoleh wawasan yg lebih luas dan ciri2 kepribadian yg diharapkan dari sikap mahasiswa, khususnya berkenaan dgn sikap dan tingkah laku manusia dlm menghadapi manusia2 lain, serta sikap dan tingkah laku manusia2 lain terhadap manusia yg bersangkutan secara timbal balik. Pokok Bahasan ISD 1. Pengertian, latar belakang serta ruang lingkup pembahasan. 2. Sekilas tentang ilmu2 sosial, IPS, ilmu sosial, dan ISD. 3. Penduduk, masyarakat dan kebudayaan. 4. Individu, keluarga, dan masyarakat. 5. Pemuda dan sosialisasi serta peranan pemuda dalam pembangunan masyarakat. 6. Peranan pendidikan dlm pembangunan. 7. Warga negara dan negara. 8. Pelapisan sosial desa, kesamaan derajat. 9. Desa, masyarakat kota dan pembangunan pedesaan. 10. Kota, masyarakat kota, dan pembangunan perkotaan. 11. Pertentangan-pertentangan sosial. 12. Integrasi sosial dan integrasi nasional. 13. Pembangunan dan perubahan sosial. 14. Ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi dan kemiskinan. Artikel terkait dengan Ilmu Sosial Dasar; Defenisi (Kuliah I) Kuliah Psikologi Komunikasi 1 Interaksionisme Simbolik ala Herbert Mead Teori Kepala Batu atau Obstinate Audience Agenda Media dalam Komunikasi Massa Teori Media dan Muatan Politik http://sulfikar.com/ilmu-sosial-dasar-defenisi-kuliah-i.html

ISLAM AND MODERNITY

By Rusydy Zakaria, M.Ed.M.Phill. Abstraks Artikel ini membahas thema tentang Islam dan Modernitas. Pencarian hubungan antara Islam dan Modernitas menjadi landasan studi ini dilakukan. Terdapat tiga isu yang akan dibahas. Pertama akademik debat tentang Islam dan Modernitas dengan focus pada tiga teori besar: Weber, Marxism, liberalisme dan neo liberlisme. Kedua pada isu tentang tekanan kontemporer terhadap Islam dalan konteks modernitas. Ketiga tentang respon kaum muslim terhadap modernitas. Dalam artikel ini dibahas tentang bagimana Islam sebagai sebuah system ideology dunia memainkan peran yang sigifikan di dalam proses modernitas. Juga artikel ini akan mendiskusikan berbagai tingkat respon kaum muslim terhadap modernitas, mulai dari yang sangat konservatif sampai dengan yang radikal. Terakahir, artikel ini memberi ulasan pula dalam kontek pendidikan Islam; yakni bagaimana pendidikan Islam memberikan respon terhadap isu sekulariasasi dan demokrasi sebagai impak langsung dari modernitas). Kata kunci: Islam dan Modernitas Academic debates on Islam and modernity Islam is a universal ideology. As a universal ideology it is based upon the fundamental tenet that Islam is ‘ad deen’ (religion), that is, a complete way of life – both for the individual and for the society. At a high level of generalization, there is certainly a ‘map of social reality’ to which all Muslims would subscribe. Politically, there is the ideal of the worldwide ‘ummah’ (community). Economically, there is the dedication to the establishment of an economic system founded upon social justice and redistribution of wealth – idealized in the system of zakat (Muslim tithing system) and wakaf (donation for religious purposes). Legally, there is at least some acceptance of the syariah (Muslim legal code) as a template of social life (Siddique, 1985). Educationally, there are the aims to train young Muslims to have strong mental discipline and to acquire knowledge; not merely to develop intellectual curiosity but also to develop as rational, righteous beings who can contribute to the spiritual, moral and physical welfare of family, community and mankind (Husain and Ashraf, 1979). In this context, the Quran and the Sunnah are the immutable sources of the fundamental tenets of Islam, of its principles, ethic and culture. Both the Quran and the Sunnah are the fundamental sources for developing Islamic education and Muslim society. They provide a positive sense to the human mind, some scientific principles, an account of human nature, and principles for social organization (Azra, 1999). There were many academic responses to the debate surrounding the relationship between Islam and modernity. Western scholars often viewed modernism as a threat to Islam, although this appeared to be based on a lack of understanding of Islam and its earlier intellectual pluralism. As Arkoun (1994) has argued ‘can one speak of [a] scientific understanding of Islam in the West or must one rather talk about the West[ern] way of imaging Islam? We can, in fact, wonder whether the Western understanding of Islam is valid and objective’ (p.6). In this view, Islam was also constructed as a theological, political and intellectual problem for the West. Theologically, the reintroduction of the monotheistic concept after the crucifixion and resurrection of God’s own son (Jesus Christ) required Christian Europe to denounce Islam, its prophet and its followers. Politically, when Islam arrived at Europe’s borders, Europe launched a series of crusades against Islam. Later, attacks were made intellectually when the scholarly achievements of Muslim civilization created a series of disciplines to contain Muslim thought and history (Sardar and Malik, 2001). In order to capture the relationship between Modernity and Islam, the next section will give an account of the major theories of Marxism, Weberian and Neo-Liberalism in terms of Islam. Marxism and Islam In order to capture the relationship between Marxism and Islam, we need first to discuss Marx’s theory of religion. His theory was transformed by his confrontation with Hegel and Feuerbach. For Hegel, religion, like philosophy, had an historical dimension. He tried to show that history was the development of human self-consciousness; in becoming aware of the nature of historical modes of thought, humans are able to criticize their own conceptions and thereby transcend their limitations. In this context, the relationship between freedom and reason is central to Hegel’s view of history. Meanwhile, for Feuerbach both Hegelianism and religion were merely aspects of humans’ alienation from themselves. To transcend both, humans have to achieve an awareness that all the qualities we attribute to God are in fact human. In his confrontation with Hegel and Feuerbach, Marx came to formulate a general theory of religion, with a limited criticism of institutional Christianity. For Marx, as described by Turner (1974), ‘religion is as a reflection of a corrupt world in which men are estranged. It is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of spiritless situation. It is the opium the people’ (p.179). With respect to Islam, therefore, the very notion of Marxism is a very sensitive issue. Some Muslim leaders, particularly from traditional groups (conservative strand) refuse to recognize this ideology, because it has a potential danger to affect Islamic culture and even the religious life of the Muslim world. The danger of Marxism for Islam was the appearance of a form of Marxism with an Islamic veneer, creating a most tempting trap for certain simple souls. This insidious use of religion, often with direct political aims in mind, is in fact more dangerous than the obviously anti-religious position and corresponds to the thoughts and attitudes of that class of people whom the Qurán calls the munafiqun (hypocrites) . Therefore, to preserve Islam and Islamic civilization, a conscious and intellectual defense must be made through intellectual criticism of the modern world. Muslims cannot hope to follow the same path as the West and the truth must be asserted along with an intellectual defense of Islam wherever it is challenged (Nasr, 2002). Islam, very simply, is a philosophy of human liberation. Its first summons, “say ‘There is no god but God and prosper”, propounds tauhid as the necessary means to that end. (Shari’ati, 1981) Weber and Islam In order to understand Weber’s` interpretation of Islam in relation to the rise of the modern world, we need first to know what Weber’s argument was about the relationship between religious belief and the emergence and persistence of capitalist institutions. For Weber, beliefs are independent and influential. He saw that a ‘capitalist spirit’ has arisen from some religious impulse. In this context, the Protestant Ethic is a strong thesis in the argument that Calvinist beliefs caused modern capitalism, but Weber’s treatment and interpretation of Islam is, in fact, very weakly connected with the specific thesis about Calvinism. In practice, Weber’s discussion of Islam is in terms of patrimonial domination. For Weber, Islamic social structure contained elements of patrimonialism and feudalism, such as the absence of a cohesive landowning aristocracy, an independent legal system and autonomous cities which provided Weber with a term for absolute power where patrimonial authority lays primary stress on the sphere of arbitrary will, free of traditional limitations, called ‘Sultanism’ (Princesim) (Turner, 1974). Although Weber’s analysis of Islam was never completed, Islam is intrinsically important to Weber’s total endeavor. Weber’s study on Islam can be divided into two dimensions: a commentary on the ethic of Islam and an analysis of the patrimonial structure of Islam. In accounting for the content of the Islamic ethic, Weber underlined two key aspects. First, as a monotheistic religion, Islam did not develop into an ascetic religion because its main social carrier was a warrior group. The content of the religious message was transformed into a set of values compatible with the mundane needs of a warrior stratum. The salvation element of Islam was transformed into a secular quest for land; the result was that Islam became a religion of accommodation rather than a religion of transformation. The pristine message of Meccan monotheism was adulterated by Sufism, which catered for the emotional and orgiastic needs of the masses. The consequence was, while the warrior stratum pulled Islam in the direction of a militaristic ethic, the Sufi tradition drew Islam towards a religion of mystical flight. The point is that Islam did not contain an ethic which was congruent with the rise of rational capitalism. As a religion of harmony, Islam produced an ethic which was incompatible with the spirit of capitalism. According to Turner (1986), this thesis is not true, because Islam, in fact, emerged and developed from a trading city. Mecca, since its beginning, has been a commercial city, dominated by merchant groups. The Quraisy tribe, the prophet of Muhammad’s tribe, had achieved their political position based on their domination in the trade sector. Also, the Quran is replete with trade terminologies. In Islam, we can find a discussion about a devout city and a devout nomad influenced by economic interests. However, Islam has been successful in integrating a trader people and nomadic people in one community, called “Moslem”. The second dimension of Weber’s account of Islam centers on the political and economic structure of later Islamic dynasties in which this structure fell under patrimonial bureaucracies. For Weber, the financial and political structure of dynastic Islam depended on the successful conquest of new lands, which were then exploited to maintain the central bureaucracy. This political structure hinged on a complex balance of social forces represented by the Sultan, the military, the ulama (Scholars) and the masses (Turner, 1974). Furthermore, Weber argued that the Sultan, as a representative of God, should maintain the power balance between all those stakeholders, because the failure to achieve the power balance (justice) will lead to the society being weakened (Abdullah, 1987). Many have criticized these accounts. Turner (1974) argued that Weber failed to make allowance for the persistent conflict between the pious and their rulers; the resentment between the legal scholars and law officials. He failed to recognize the social solidarities of Islamic cities, which focused on the law schools. Furthermore, Weber did not provide an accurate periodization of Islamic history. Also, his outline of the Islamic warrior ethic was tangential to his main concern with the patrimonial character of mediaeval Islam, and in his discussion of oriental patrimonialism, he duplicated an analysis of oriental society, which had already been examined by Marx and Engels. But these criticisms did not diminish the main outline of Weber’s argument that Islam did not develop along capitalist lines because of its patrimonial system of domination. This system of social arrangement collapsed because it could not solve its own political contradiction and it was incapable of dealing with European capitalism and colonialism (Turner, 1974). Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and Islam Liberalism is a relatively modern phenomenon that has had great influence in the Western world, particularly in England, the United States and Western Europe. Liberalism is one of the most important Western ideologies which underpins the modern West. The basic credo of classical liberalism was freedom and the right of the individual. As Kerlinger (1984) points out, the individual became the focus of attention and values; society and the government were seen as subordinate to the individual’s right, aspiration, and efforts. Popkewitz and Brennan (1997) described that, as a social theory, ‘liberalism’ refers to a legacy of nineteenth century social thought which underlies contemporary social and educational theory. In liberal thought, progress in scientific knowledge is made through managing social change and placing greater emphasis on individuals and the phenomenology of the subject. One of the central figures of liberal discourse, the ‘individual’, has a distinctly ambiguous ontological status. The next paragraph examines the implication of this ambiguity for the understanding first of liberalism as a doctrine and secondly of its relationship to other contemporary doctrines, including democracy, socialism and neo-liberalism. As a doctrine of government, liberalism is concerned with a community of autonomous persons where some regard the government primarily as implementing the will of the community and the other see government essentially as collective self-control. In this context, representative government and the rule of law might be described as containing the influence of the people within strict limits. This view of natural autonomy as political ideal corresponds to an understanding of government as able to operate legitimately only on the basis of the agreement of those autonomous persons who are subject to its power. In terms of democracy, representative government could be thought to allow government by the people to be extended to large, geographically dispersed and relatively differentiated populations. Meanwhile, in terms of socialism, social democracy has attempted to manage economic activity while retaining both the commitment to representative democracy and the constitutional restraints of liberal democracy. It is interesting to note that liberalism and social democracy have been able to present themselves as competing rationalities of government. In this respect, the account of liberalism as acknowledging the natural autonomy of the individual and insisting upon a limited role for government gives rise to a misleadingly sharp set of demarcations between liberalism on the one hand and democracy and social democracy on the other. Therefore, the differences between liberalism on the one hand and democracy and socialism on the other appear to take a particularly clear form. Liberalism acknowledges the natural liberty of the person and aims to defend it against external obstacles, whereas democracy and socialism threaten this liberty in the name of what they describe as collective interest and priorities (Avnon and Shalit, 1999). Despite its methodological flaws, neo-liberalism is the theoretical underpinning of the most recent wave of globalization. It is a term used to identify a particular discourse of governance, political philosophy, and political prescription centering around the objectives of the self-limiting state. Therefore, as Fitzsimons (2000) argues, neo-liberalism is a substantive discourse of government that is potent precisely because of its capacity to combine economics, the social, and politics on behalf of rational choice as a legitimating principle. There are two competing models for thinking about the world that have become influential over recent years, the neo-classical economic theory and the world system theory. Neo-classical theory , from which neo-liberalism derives, has tended to become the dominant ideology of global capitalism because of its emphasis on a free enterprise and an unfettered market. Meanwhile, the world system theory argues that national development is an irrelevant concept in a globalised economy. With respect to Islam, the notions of liberalism and neo-liberalism are highly debatable. The classical Islamic orthodox groups, whose obedience is to God’s rules, do not have an interest in the implications of liberalism and neo-liberalism for their lives, because they are more focused on their spiritual life than on the social life. Their life is influenced by orthodox doctrines. One extreme doctrine, related to a political issue is the full obedience to the ‘Caliph’ or the Islamic political leaders, even if they are unfair. Many Muslim orthodox groups still maintain the doctrine of full obedience to the Caliph or Sultan. This orthodox doctrine established fourteen centuries ago is still kept to the present day, even though the original conditions have changed. In the name of Islam these classical groups challenge other political and cultural systems including democracy, capitalism, liberalism or neo-liberalism, imported from the West. According to these groups, the whole of life stands ordered solely on Islamic principles, since there is no other valid path except submission to Allah (God). All democracies, including the Western representative kinds, are evil. Democracy means the rule of the demos, the people or mob. Islam requires the rule of the umma, the community of the faithful, through a government whose duty is to implement the shari’a (Islamic law) (Aldridge, 2000). For these classical groups, the inhabited world is theologically and juridically divided between the home of Islam (dar al-islam) where the Divine law applies; and the land of war (dar al-harb) where the ‘infidel’ always threatens to substitute secular law for the true law set down in the time of the prophet (Arkoun, 1994). But moderate traditional groups, for instance: Sayyed Hossein Nasr, believed that traditional Islam is rich enough to generate an alternative culture through which Muslims can confront the intellectual and material supremacy of the West. Nasr believed that Allah (God) who has infinite mercy will eventually revitalize a tradition in order to save humanity from the spiritual and intellectual impoverishment caused by modernity (Aslan, 1998). Modernist groups who have more tolerance with Western trends are attempting to harmonize Islam and Western civilization. Some contemporary ‘isms’ such as democracy, Marxism, socialism, capitalism, liberalism or neo-liberalism became a significant challenge for modernizing Islamic society. Liberal modernists, such as Rifa’a al-Tahtawi and Mustafa Kemal (Kemal Attarturk) believed they could lead Muslim societies along the same path through imitating the Western cultural model. For example, by launching the Western concept of secularization, Kemal Atarturk wanted to recreate Turkey as a modern state. He believed that it was enough to take the ‘prescription’ for the success of Western civilization and apply it to Muslim countries (Huntington, 2005). For conservative groups, this view represents the typical naïve state of consciousness found among Muslim intellectuals between 1880–1940. On this view, there can be no deep harmony and accord between the Islamic world and the secularist West because there are no common transcendent principles between them. There can only be peace based upon mutual respect on the human level. It is necessary to assert that the question of Islam and the West (including Western-ism) must be cast in a new mold. Both sides must understand that there cannot be an integration of two diametrically opposed worldviews: Islam and modernity, but at best mutual tolerance on the human level (Nasr, 2002). From the discussion above we have seen that since the early nineteenth century, Islam was faced with the issue of its relation to modernity. It could be argued, in principle, that no one Islamic doctrine is opposed to modernity, because Islam is a religion with a comprehensive way of life. Therefore, modernity becomes a “challenger” for shaping and embedding Islamic values and norms in the life of Moslem society. With respect to modernity as a human civilization, Islam can only gain valuable experience in facing ‘modern’ life problems, because Islam will have the opportunity to introduce its own world view. In fact, Islam cannot escape from the impact of modernity. Even, Islam in many aspects has gained valuable benefits from modern life and ‘modernity’. Contemporary Pressure on Islam Most Muslims believe that the initial impact of modernity on the Islamic world began with the transoceanic expansion of Europe in the fifteenth century. In 1498 Vasco da Gama opened the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, because he could not use the conventional route (through the Red Sea), which was occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From that time, various European nations reached India and the Far East and engaged in trade with local rulers in East Africa, the Indian continent, and the East Indies. In the seventeenth century, trade led on to political involvement and finally full colonialism (Watt, 1988). Colonial Pressure This political advance, as the outcome of a new superiority in military technology, led to the process of colonization of Muslim countries by Western countries. First, there were treaties with local rulers, then European troops were sent to protect the trading stations. Their role then extended to political and social affairs and govern-ship of the countries under colonial rule; and finally, in some areas, full-blown colonialism. On taking control, the colonial powers not only had the function of providing raw material for Europe but there was a pressure on Muslim society to adopt the practices of particular colonial powers. One of the significant acts of all the colonial rulers was to ban all Muslim institutional power, ranging from political to intellectual and educational activities in Muslim society. For example, when the Dutch colonialists took over Indonesia in the early seventeenth century, they did not only destroy the Islamic kingdom as the Islamic political power, but they also banned the Islamic educational system and replaced it with a secular system as the mainstream system. Meanwhile, Islamic education had been pushed to the margins of society and had been ignored as the poor educational institution for native Indonesia Muslim society (Sardar and Malik, 2001). This colonial policy on education created a new variant of Muslim leaders who experienced a Western type of education. As a Western-educated class, they wanted to modernize their countries and achieved this by adopting many aspect of Western culture. Many wanted Western education for their children and supported the development of the new system of education by introducing Western methods of teaching and Western curriculum. From that time emerged several leaders and educational reformists, including Sultan Mahmud II and Kemal Ataturk in Turkey; as well as Mohammad Ali Pasha, al-Tahtawi and Mohammad Abduh who wanted to reform the University of Al-Azhar. In India, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College. In Indonesia, reformists included Syech Ahmad Chotib who founded the Normal School in Padang West Sumatera; Dr. Wahidin Sudiro Husodo who founded STOVIA,- a medical school in Jakarta; and in the moderate form, K.H. Ahmad Dahlan who founded the Muhammadiyah Schooling system. Meanwhile, some ulamas (religious scholars) still maintained the traditional Islamic form of education which did not meet the contemporary demands, because its teaching method still focused more on the memorization of subject matters without deep analysis (Azra, 1999). These two types of institutions were based on completely different philosophies of education. As a result in most Islamic countries, two types of educated classes appeared who had the same ethnic background, religion, and language, but who were not able to understand each other because they interpreted the world through different prisms (Nasr, 2002). Neo-Colonial Pressure During the post colonial period (1920 – 1960), most Muslims saw the pervasive Western cultural domination of the world as a serious threat to their religion and identity; because they viewed the West as trying to homogenize the world with a secular Western flavour . The introduction of economic capitalism, communism, and Western liberalism had been successful in moderating even secularizing some Muslim countries. The case of Turkey and Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938) is an extreme example. He transformed Turkey from Ottoman conservatism to modernity by adopting and imitating European methods, social institutions, and political models. He went even further by abolishing the sultanate system – the sacred rank of the caliphate . He attacked the semiological universe of Muslims by replacing the Arabic alphabet with the Latin alphabet, the turban and the fez with the hat; and the most surprising move, replaced the shari’a (Islamic law) with the Swiss legal code (Arkoun, 1994). Many similar cases, but in a more moderate form, occurred during the period of colonialism and continued after these countries gained independence. Many of them adopted the Western political model for their schooling system. These influences brought the Muslim countries to modernity, but they also created a latent tension between the modern and the traditional groups within the Muslim society (Watt, 1988) . In the view of some Muslim leaders of the conservative groups, by setting up the International agencies for economic development, such as: World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Western countries have played ‘games’ in order to maintain the domination of West upon East or the developed countries upon the developing countries, of which large numbers are Muslim countries. These agencies, with full political support from the super powers, have played an active role as ‘World Charity Organizations’ by offering packaged loans as funding aid for conducting economic development. At the beginning and for a short time, such financial programs seem to be useful and effective ways of achieving a new material standard of living; but in the long term, they become an ‘economic trap’ that can destroy the Muslim countries’ economic foundation. This was evident when a financial crisis occurred in 1997 in Asian countries, including the Muslim countries Malaysia and Indonesia, causing the level of social welfare to decrease dramatically. However, the leaders of the ‘modern’ Islamic group, particularly those who were educated in Western educational institutions, presented a different view. For them, the Islamic world could not be isolated from the influence of Western economics, because the waves of globalization have created a mutual dependence between north and south, West and East, poor and rich countries. Thus, the Muslim countries cannot escape from the influence of the economic globalization (Hoveyda, 1998). In the cultural field, Western culture, particularly, represented by the American life style, came to dominate not only the Muslim countries but also the entire world. With their advanced technological information and communication systems such as CNN, BBC, and many others; the Western countries have tried to create a strong view that the Western culture, particularly the American life style should be the leading world culture. The introduction of the Western life style including, individualism, feminism, materialism, homosexuality, and even atheism have brought a strong challenge for modern Muslim society. For some Muslims of conservative groups, these notions were seen as a ‘death poison’ which had the potential to destroy their true faith and social religious attitudes. As Azra (1999) argues, Western hegemony in the field of information technology has not only led to the emergence of cultural globalization but also to the penetration of Western values into the life of Muslim society. For example, the American soap opera ‘Dynasty’ is not only pure ‘entertainment’ but seems to legitimate permissive relationships between men and women, which is a ‘taboo’ in Muslim society. On the most significant level, there is the ever-increasing bombardment of Islamic society, and especially its youth, with the products of Western culture, particularly American pop culture and the hedonistic aspects of Western life (Nasr, 2002). But for some Muslims of the modernist group, not all of Western cultural penetration had a negative impact on the Muslim society or way of life. The Western attitudes of working hard, efficiency, rationality, and democratic politics became highly valued qualities in contributing to the modernization of Islamic countries. And also, in fact, Muslim countries cannot protect their society from this cultural infiltration, because they lack the ability and skills to create a balanced counter attack. They also cannot blame Western countries for creating cultural penetration, because as the holder of cultural hegemony they cannot prevent themselves from ‘selling’ their culture, since they cannot see outside it and therefore it permeates the cultural products which they sell to the rest of the world – like television programmes, movies etc. This cultural penetration has become a significant challenge for Muslim societies. As Nasr (2002) points out, modern technology continues to penetrate in an ever greater degree into the Islamic world, as elsewhere. This penetration has religious and spiritual implications on a vast scale. These have become of critical concern for many Muslim leaders and thinkers. The modernist group created a modern Islamic education by adopting modern methods whilst still maintaining the spirit of Islam, but the traditional groups have created a religious doctrine as a way of protecting their members from the negative impact of cultural penetration. The Terrorist label Pressure After the events of 11 September 2001, Islam and terrorism have become synonymous. The American war propaganda on terrorism was followed by military action on Afghanistan and Iraq, creating a new tension between Islam and the West. This propaganda, which was led by US President George Bush and supported by former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, has created new pressures on Islam and Muslim countries. It also created a new stigma on the Moslem people, particularly the Moslem people from Middle East countries and South East Asia, with the potential now to be described as “a Terrorist”. Now, Islam and the West seem to stand in opposition, both having negative perceptions and strong prejudice towards the other. Many violent acts that have occurred in parts of the world are blamed on ‘Muslim” terrorist actions. The Bali bombing, Manila Bombing, the Jakarta bombing, the Bangkok bombing among others are all understood as ‘Muslim’ terrorist actions. People from Muslim countries, particularly from the Middle East are under suspicion when entering Western countries. This phenomenon seems to be leading to a ‘clash of civilizations’ between the West and Islam. Samuel P. Huntington predicted that the twenty-first century would be a clash of civilizations, as will be discussed more fully below. Today’s terrorism can be characterized as political and cultural terrorism, as it involves mixed political and religious motivations. Two particular groups are Al-Qaeda with its prominent leader, Usama bin Laden who is regarded as the prime suspect for attacking Western, particularly American interests since early 1990. The other is its descendent global network Jama’at- al-Islamiyah which is blamed, by President Bush and Tony Blair, as the prime suspect for the bomb attack on the World Trade Center on 11 September 2001 and other bombings. Although, those Western leaders say that the blame is not intended to label (discredit) Islam as a ‘terrorist religion’, the implication is there and this has upset Muslim countries. As Sardar and Malik (2001) have pointed out, Islam cannot be blamed for the actions of the terrorists. By painting all Muslims with the same brush, we undermine their humanity and defame over a billion people, their societies, and their histories. However, the terrorist label given to these Islamic radical groups has created a new pressure on the Islamic world. This pressure brings a political dilemma for Muslim leaders (and their countries). They have to tread a fine line between engaging with the American propaganda of the war on the terrorism, while avoiding American allegations that they support terrorists, and at the same time, ensure that they do not damage relationships with other Muslim countries. This pressure has created a new atmosphere between Islam and the West which is characterized by tension and prejudice. From the Western side, a terrorist action is understood as a threat to Western civilization. Meanwhile from the Islamic side, the Western allegation of terrorism is understood as a threat to Islam. Professor Samuel Huntington of Harvard University predicted in 1993 that world politics was entering a new phase in which the major source of conflict would be neither ideological nor economic but cultural. According to Huntington, “the fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future. It will be ‘the West against the rest’ and especially against ‘resurgent’ Islamic fundamentalism. For him, the ‘cultural division’ between Christianity and Islam has reemerged. Conflict along the fault line between Western and Islamic civilization has been coming back” (cited in Hoveyda, 1998,p. 159). However, many intellectual scholars disagree with this notion of clash of civilization. Fereydoun Hoveyda (1998) argued that the world debate on the clash of civilizations is literally metaphorical. In referring to Islamic civilization, he argues that what we call Islamic civilization is something of the past although we can see and appreciate its products. But it has produced nothing ‘new’ since the eighteenth century. What we call Islamic civilization now is not ‘alive’. Therefore, it is unrealistic to compare Islamic civilization and Western civilization. The situation is not like the period of the cold war, when the West and the Communist worlds were threatening each other’s very existence, for the Islamic world cannot and does not threaten the West militarily, politically, or even economically in any conceivable way. On the contrary, the West controls the most vital economic resources of Muslim nations, benefits from all conflicts in that world through the sale of vast quantities of arms, and practically dictates its wishes in many part of the Islamic world (Nasr, 2002). Muslim responses to modernity Muslims responded to the cultural and political supremacy of the modern West through generating three different movements. As Sayyid Husen Nasr has outlined, these are: Islamic modernism, Islamic traditionalism, and Islamic revivalism or ‘fundamentalism’. First, Islamic modernism is a movement that wants to modify or reformulate Islam in a manner that would accommodate the norms of modernity. It aims to highlight and put more stress on those aspects of Islam which are in accord with the norms of modernity, while attempting to moderate those Islamic issues that are in direct conflict with modernity (Aslan, 1998). Second, Islamic traditionalism is a movement which is inward looking. This movement sees change (modernity) as the corruption of original cultural values. They lead the fight against the modern world. For them, it is essential to maintain integrity in the face of rapid change (modernity). The outside world may change, but traditional ‘man’s’ authentic, original, eternal soul (Islam) must be saved (Hopwood, 2000). Meanwhile, the third type, Islamic revivalism or fundamentalism , is a religio-political movement which differs from traditionalism in its approach. This movement does not seek wisdom but ‘truth’. The fundamentalists ground their views in presuppositions about the poverty and shallowness of reason. Only through the divine can humans attain solid, exemplary moral worth. From within, fitra (inner power) is enlightened by divine revelation, it becomes a force for humankind’s happiness, while from without, the fundamentalist assumes the impossibility of knowledge through reason because human knowledge cannot comprehend, interact with or act according to ultimate truths (Mousalli, 1999). Debate on two main contemporary issues: Secularism and democracy During the first two hundred years of Islam, or the classic era, particularly within the era of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamic world attained a high level of scientific knowledge and a refined civilization. Many Islamic scientists emerged during this time, including Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibnu Sina, Ibn Maskaweh, Ibn Rusd, and Al-Razi. Most of them were also religious scholars who were expert in several branches of Islamic knowledge such as ilm kalam (theology), fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), hadith (traditions), tafsir (Qur’an exegesis). For example: Al-Kindi (d.866), known as the philosopher of Arabs, wrote books on mathematics, physics, music, medicine and geography. The work of these men made a significant contribution to the development of world knowledge and civilization (Sardar and Malik, 2001). But, with the destruction of Greek philosophy or rational movement and the shift to irrational movement or orthodoxy, particularly under the influence of Al-Ghazaly (d.1111) who stood against the Mu’tazilite philosophy or liberal thinking, the ulama (religious scholars) were in a position of dominance. They began to conceive of the written word as an independent realm of representation and truth apart from life. To some extent, they reduced the concept of ilm (knowledge) from meaning ‘all knowledge’ to mean only ‘religious knowledge’. As a result, formal teaching focused on religious subjects; and the general subjects, such as physics, sciences, mathematics were regarded as marginal subjects. After the fall of the Mu’tazilah regime (the Islamic rationalism group), a majority of the orthodox Islamic scholars argued that the general sciences could corrupt and disturb the level of Muslim faithfulness. Therefore, the general subjects had to be eliminated from the Islamic curriculum. This view is caused by the religious belief that religion is a direct connection to God. The supremacy of religious subjects has had a substantial impact not only on the development of Islamic knowledge but also on Islamic civilization (Azra, 1999). In contrast, for the West, religious education has never been the central feature of school or university education. The branches of knowledge have no central integrating force. In Western education, knowledge is divided into three branches: Humanities, Natural Sciences, and Social sciences. This modern education emphasizes reason and rationality and ignores the value of the spirit (spiritual dimension). Western education is based on a core curriculum designed to build an all-round ‘democratic personality’ in each student. Western people believe that ‘democracy’ provides a complete solution for society (Husein and Ashraf, 1979). This ideology has entered Muslim society because many Muslim students have been educated in the West and returned to their countries with ideas in conflict with traditional assumptions, particularly regarding faith. Hence, a cultural duality has appeared everywhere in the Muslim world because of the dual education system. The traditional Islamic education created traditional Islamic groups; and the modern secular education created the secularists. In some Muslim countries, the secular education system has gradually replaced all other forms of education. In other Muslim countries both systems still exist but the secular system has become the more dominant (Husain and Ashraf, 1979). The question of integrating Western modes of learning into the Islamic perspective and creating a single educational system which would be “Islamic” and yet able to include modern disciplines, began to occupy the mind of many Muslim intellectuals from the 1950s and 1960s onward. This effort led to the establishment of several universities, the preparation of integrated curricula and the emergence of the ‘Islamization of knowledge’ movement. Although these efforts have not been successful to date, they remain a major Islamic agenda. The Issue of Secularism The notion of secularism becomes a sensitive issue for those Muslim societies which are dominated by traditional Islamic groups. Ulama (religious scholars), the primary bearers and transmitters of a traditional worldview, are mostly reactionary in the sense that they tend to oppose reforms in the form of secularization. The reforms they are interested in are nearly all social and political, and leave the traditional world-view unchanged and unchangeable. For them unchangeability is an ideal both for human individuals and societies. This unchangeability of human nature justifies Muslim scholars in asserting the finality of the rules and law for human conduct which are expressed in the Qur’an and the Sunna of the prophet. As long as human nature does not change, essentially there can be no new problems, and therefore no need for any fundamental revision of the Sharia’ (Islamic law). Thus, the idea of social reform, including secularization, is virtually unthinkable for traditional minded Muslims (Watt, 1988). However, scientific inventions and technological advances of the West, especially during the last two centuries, have altered the nature of human society. The invention of television and other modern technologies makes it possible for a few people to control the thinking of vast populations, and makes it difficult to insulate any part of the world, including the Muslim world, from what is happening elsewhere. Consequently, even if it is admitted that human nature has not changed essentially, there have been changes in human society which require changes in law. Thus, the traditional assumption by Muslims of the unchangeable nature of the human being blinds them to the new problems created for human society by technological and cultural advances (Watt, 1988). In facing these challenges, some Muslim reformists such as the Egyptians Tahtawi and Taha Husein, the Algerian Kateb Yassin, the Tunisian Bourguiba and so many others who have traveled to the West believed that it was enough to take the ‘prescriptions’ for the success of Western civilization and apply these to Muslim countries. In this context, secularism was perceived as an effective prescription to be applied to societies where religion controlled all the happenings and gestures of daily life (Arkoun, 1994). Although the notion of secularization was strongly resisted by almost all the traditional Muslim groups, it was adopted in the medium term by some modernists, particularly in the field of education. After coming to power in 1805, Muhammad Ali in Egypt set about creating an army school based on the European model. To achieve this, he realized that he would require officers with particular training in various European subjects, rather than the traditional Islamic curriculum. He invited European teachers to Egypt to instruct the potential officers and followed this by sending these young Egyptian officers to study in Europe. This initiative was replicated by Sultan Mahmud II of Turkey who revived the engineering schools and sent students to Europe. He also set up a medical school by imitating a Western model. These initiatives are among the first effective reform schemes in Muslim countries and inspired the next phase of educational reform in the other Muslim countries (Watt, 1988). In India, Sayyid Akhmad Khan (1817-1898) founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1877, which later became the University of Aligarh. To improve the quality of Muslim India, he believed that Muslim India must engage with modern science and the more productive aspects of Western thought. For him, the spread of Western education through the introduction of modern sciences brought the greatest challenge, and he also believed that Islamic teaching was compatible with modern sciences (Martin, 1997). At the beginning, his liberal view on education was opposed by the ulama (religious scholars), who had their centers in the Dar al-Ulum at Deoband and the Nadwat al-Ulama at Lucknow. But later he had more support from an increasing number of Muslims who had had a Western-type education, such as Amir Ali and Mohammad Iqbal. He also gained support from a modern traditional leader, Sayyid Abu ‘Ala al-Maududi who critized the ulama for still living in the eighteenth century and giving youth no effective guidance for participation in the contemporary world (Watt, 1988). As one of the leading Muslim thinkers in the Indian continent, Maududi was aware of how the two parallel systems of education had produced two opposing groups among the more intellectual members of community. In examining this situation, Maududi (1980) argued: This explains why everywhere in the Muslim world we find two groups and schools of thought diametrically opposed to, and often at loggerheads with each other. One of these is the standard-bearer of Islamic learning and culture, but is un-capable of leading and guiding the Muslims in all spheres of life. The other group is controlling the intellectual, literary and political affairs of the Muslims, but is ignorant of the principles and essential features of Islam, alien to the spirit of Islamic culture and unware of the character of the communal organization of Islam and its social laws. Secularism also became a debatable issue in Indonesia, particularly when Nurcholis Madjid, a prominent Muslim reformist, launched the notion of secularization in early 1970. In contrast to earlier modernist movements, such as Muhammadiyah and Sarikat Islam which emphasized rationality in their denunciations of traditional religious practice, the Nurcholis Madjid movement is a combination of the empirical and historical approaches they employ in formulating a vision of an Islamic society. Madjid’s most important contribution to the development of Indonesian Islamic discourse is his attempt to decouple modernism from scripturalism. As Fachry Ali and Bactiar Effendi point out, Madjid provides a more realistic appraisal of how Muslims should approach modernity . In his controversial speech delivered on 2 January 1970, Madjid argued that Indonesian Muslims are again experiencing inertia in thought and in the development of Islamic teachings. He explained that the need for the renewal of thought was more pressing that the need for maintaining the intellectual consensus of the community. He accused his fellow Muslims of having ‘sacralized’ profane institutions, such as the Islamic political party and an Islamic state. Noting that there is no Qur’anic injunction mandating an Islamic state, Madjid criticized Indonesian Muslims for sanctifying an idea that was in fact a human fabrication . For him, Muslims should have ‘secularized’ this commitment while preserving Islam’s lasting values (Hefner and Horvatich, 1997). In the aftermath of the controversy, Madjid himself expressed some misgiving at his choice of terms, commenting publicly that his reference to ‘secularization’ had invited misinterpretation. In fact, much of the detail of Madjid’s argument was lost in the sound and the fury of the subsequent debate. However, this effort at ‘new thinking’ (secularization) was one of several related developments in the Indonesian Muslim community at this time. Their significant influence lies in their sanctioning of a shift of Indonesian Muslim energies out of formal politics and into social and educational activities. Since this time, the modern movement has developed gradually and in the form of a cultural approach, particularly in the social and education fields. On this point, Indonesia was unusual among Muslim societies during the tumultuous decade stretching from 1978 to 1988. There was a general decline in the influence of Muslim parties but a great leap forward in the social and intellectual vitality of the community (Hefner and Horvatich, 1997). It is important to note that Muslim civil associations were not the only agencies involved in the renewal. The New Order government also supported a number of cultural-Islamic programmes under the Ministry of Religious Affairs. One important feature of this effort was the enormous expansion in the State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) which began in the 1960s and which, during the 1970s and 1980s produced a large number of graduates trained in Islamic theology, law, arts, and education. These efforts in higher education were accompanied by an impressive program of infrastructural development, focusing on the construction of mosques, prayer halls, and madrasahs (Islamic schools). These efforts continued in the 1990s when international agencies, such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank became involved in providing financial and programmes assistance in order to improve the quality of madrasahs or the Islamic schooling system (Rahim, 2000). Many initiatives had been implemented for reforming the madrasah educational system, from an introduction of general subjects, such as math, science, social sciences, and English to setting up a structural change in the madrasah system by making it identical with a ‘sekolah’ (general schooling system), although maintaining its character as an Islamic educational institution. However, these initiatives have not been enough to make the madrasah system equal with the general schooling system in Indonesia. The Madrasah system has faced critics from many groups of Muslim society who argue that the madrasah educational system is not ready to face social change. Their graduates are not prepared to compete with the graduates from the general schooling system in term of training and skills for middle rank jobs. Even their dominance in religious subjects has decreased significantly (MORA, 1999). The issue of educational democracy This has become an interesting debate in the last two decades, particularly when Khomeini launched the Iran Revolution in the end of 1978. For many Muslim countries, this revolution became a model for all power seekers. It demonstrated how the use of ‘Islam’ can become a highly effective approach for mobilizing the masses; meanwhile this revolution changed the way in which Western countries, particularly the United States, was perceived by the Third World, especially Muslim countries (Hoveyda, 1998). This revolution also created a negative image of Islam, as it triggered a new kind of aggressive militant Islamic fundamentalism and revived the idea of ‘jihad’ against infidels. The Islamic terrorist movement and suicide bombers as a new strategy and tactic in encountering opponents increased rapidly after this revolution. It also created a strong negative sense about Islam in which Islam has become peculiarly traumatic term for Western societies (Said, 1981). This negative picture of Islam has created a big question in many aspects of contemporary life. For example: Is Islam compatible with democracy? Is democracy not an important need for Muslim countries? What kind of education system can meet the needs of welfare, knowledge and democracy in the modern Islamic world? Finding answers to these questions is not easy. There are two main perspectives when democracy is discussed. They divide into an Islamic and Western perspectives. From the Islamic perspective, education is still dominated by the traditional Islamic groups to whom the nature of teaching is still firmly focused on the memorization of texts without much comprehension of their meaning (Watt, 1988). The form of teaching is characterized by one-way direction in which the teacher is a dominant party, and students are a passive party or ‘good listeners’. In the learning process, the teacher is the only owner of knowledge and a student is an ‘empty box’ to be filled. The learning process occurs in the narrative way in which a teacher gives a teaching instruction that needs to be accepted and memorized by students in order to pass their examinations. This ‘Banking Concept of Education’ has significant consequences, not the least being a strong barrier against developing critical skills and creativity in students. As a result, most graduates from Islamic schools have lacked self-confidence and are unable to create a valuable response in term of resolving their daily problems (Azra, 1999). This Islamic educational system, of course does not provide a situation conducive to creating a democratic climate. Orthodox theology (Asy’ari thought), which emphasized the scriptural and textual and dominated the life of Muslim societies, created the legalistic, formalistic approach and even feudalistic attitude in almost all Muslim countries. Much of the Islamic educational system until now has been dominated by the orthodox climate in which the students are required to show respect and obedience towards teachers without reserve. But from Islamic principles, with reference to the Qur’an and Sunna, the modernist Islam doctrines encourage every Muslim to be a democratic people. Within the Islamic framework, there is a principle of shura as an ethical principle which should prevail in all conditions, taking different forms in different historical contexts. At this point, Mohammad Abduh argued that the readiness of the people to follow the method of shura is not contingent on their training, research, reflection or principles of disputation. It is sufficient that they seek truth and the establishment of a system where public interest is maintained . From this view, many scholars and modernists made a direct association between shura and democracy. However, not all Muslim scholars agreed with this view. Mohamed Talbi , for example, rejects this direct association between shura and democracy. He argues that shura is from a time and place which had no conception of democracy as we know it. Indeed, neither Islam nor Western civilization had this democratic conception before the modern period. For Talbi, democracy means the voice of the many determining who rules, and how they rule with the associated notions of universal human rights, freedom of expression, religious pluralism and equality before the law. True democracy is the proper political form for our age, as it embodies those values which constitute part of the original true Islam. Therefore, shura is not really similar to the notion of democracy. As Islamic identity, shura remain true but in a somewhat reduced and less unique manner than democracy (Marquand and Nettler, 2000). From the Western perspective, the notion of democracy has become the essential and most valuable principle constructing Western civilization and modern society. This notion was imported to Muslim countries through introducing the Western political system or embedding it in the form of education introduced by colonial governments or by some Muslim modernist leaders. The notion had a significant impact upon these Muslim societies. There were two forms of response to democracy. For Muslim modernists, it was seen as a useful ‘tool’ for conducting social reform in order to modernize a Muslim society. Muslim modernist leaders such as Muhammad Ali Pasha, Sultan Mahmud II and Kemal Ataturk, Jamal Abdul Nasser adopted the notion without reserve, but some other leaders including Jamal al-Din al- Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Ridla, Mohammed Iqbal accepted this notion conditionally. As far as it did not appear to abandon Islamic principles, particularly the concepts of tauhid (monotheism) and ‘adil (justice), it could be accepted. But for Muslim traditional or conservative groups, such as Sayyid Qutub, Hasan Al-Bana, Sayyid Abu ‘ala al-Maududi, Khomeini, the notion was not compatible with Islamic doctrine. For Qutb and al-Bana Islam, the West (including democracy) were incompatible. There could only be a struggle between believers and non-believers, between secularism, capitalism and Islam. They believed that the West, with its emphasis on science and technology, was obliterating the validity of religion. For them, Islam is a complete social system catering for all people’s needs and differing fundamentally from all other systems (Hopwood, 2000). Later this view gained support from Ali Shariati —a modern fundamentalist who argued that democracy and Western liberalism are in practice nothing but the free opportunity to display liberalism and to create more speedily an arena for the profit-hungry forces that have been assigned to transform humans into an economic, consuming animal (Shariati, 2000). Both these views still exist in almost all Muslim countries and influence the nature of Islamic society. In the educational sector, this situation is embedded in the dichotomy in Islamic educational institution between religious and secular orientation. On the one hand, there is a need to keep the Islamic perspective, but on the other hand, there is a need to adopt the advances of Western methodology. This situation creates a new dilemma: It is preferable to integrate Western modes of learning into the Islamic perspective which would then result in the creation of a single educational system which would be both Islamic and secular. This problem is debated in the Islamic world (Nasr, 2002). However, since the traditional group leaders have lost their power in conjunction with the decline of traditional Islamic educational institutions, almost all Islamic countries have a Western-type educational system up to university level. One outcome has been the creation of a new class of Western-educated people who are more tolerant to Western notions, such as democracy (Watt, 1988). As global issues, the notions of secularization and democracy will continue to affect Islamic education. Islamic education cannot escape from those demands. Therefore, governing bodies in Islamic education should have an appropriate way to develop their educational system in accordance with the needs of a developing democratic society, as is the case in the West. Meanwhile, the West needs to have a strong sensibility when they want to talk about Islam. Hence, there is the need to develop a close working and mutual understanding between Islamic culture and Western culture, which is aimed at reducing the current suspicion and misunderstanding between Islam and the West. As Nasr (2002) points out, Islam and the West must recognise that they need to have mutual understanding and that they share many fundamental principles in their respective worldviews on the human level. To achieve this end, the negative atmosphere must be cleared through earnest effort on all sides. To do this, terms such as fundamentalism, extremism, and radicalism must be restudied and defined not in the light of political interest but in light of the need to create a mutual relationship in terms of maintaining peace in the world. From the discussion above, it is apparent that Islam in Indonesia seems to be of a moderate strand, which has its own particular approach in facing the effects of modernity. The mainstream of Indonesian Moslems are generally the followers of “Ahlisunnah Waljamaah” , that is, they share a theological conservatism, which is oriented towards focusing on the balance between the profane and transcendent life. This theological perspective has been successful in creating a Moslem with moderate world views. Political, economical, social and cultural activities of most Indonesian Moslems are underpinned by this theological perspective. In a similar sense, Western modernism, through its universal principles such as the democratic system, principles of justice, equality, equity and human rights, has played a significant part in modern life, including the life of Moslem countries. Many Moslem countries have adopted those Western world views as basic principles for the formulation of their state activities, with some adjustment. As Rahman has stated, ‘syura” (democracy) is not originally from Islam, because it is an eternal obligation of all people as a human social actor (Quoted in Maarif, 1985). Conclusion Islam and modernity should not be put on opposite sides to each other, because each of them has their own historical, philosophical, methodological and educational world-views. Islam, as well as modernity, is a universal ideology, which is based upon revealed religion. It is a complete way of life for the individual and for society. 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